Poultry waste management

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Poultry industry is one of the fastest growing markets. The poultry industry produces large amounts of solid waste. There are many different waste management options for poultry waste including land application of litter as an organic fertilizer, feed for livestock, biogas production, products for commercial purposes. Poultry wastes are posing serious environmental pollution problems, through offensive odours and promotion of fly and rodent breeding. The appropriate utilization of its waste or by-products increases the monetary output and protects from its unwanted side-effects. Inadequate approach and carelessness of disposal of poultry slaughter house waste products will lead to the constant threat of disease ailments on poultry farms. This results in direct losses in the form of mortality and reduced productivity. Therefore, early disposal of wastes with a wellorganized method is an important poultry waste management tool for raising healthy and profitable poultry farming activity.

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Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2018) 7(8): 701-712 International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences ISSN: 2319-7706 Volume 7 Number 08 (2018) Journal homepage: http://www.ijcmas.com Review Article https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2018.708.077 Poultry Waste Management Purnima Singh1*, Tanmay Mondal1, Rachana Sharma2, N. Mahalakshmi1 and Mokshta Gupta1 1 Physiology & Climatology, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly 243122, Uttar Pradesh, India 2 Dairy cattle physiology Division, ICAR-NDRI, Karnal-132001, Haryana, India *Corresponding author ABSTRACT Poultry industry is one of the fastest growing markets. The poultry industry produces large Keywords amounts of solid waste. There are many different waste management options for poultry waste including land application of litter as an organic fertilizer, feed for livestock, biogas Poultry, Pollution, production, products for commercial purposes. Poultry wastes are posing serious Mortality and farming environmental pollution problems, through offensive odours and promotion of fly and rodent breeding. The appropriate utilization of its waste or by-products increases the Article Info monetary output and protects from its unwanted side-effects. Inadequate approach and carelessness of disposal of poultry slaughter house waste products will lead to the constant Accepted: threat of disease ailments on poultry farms. This results in direct losses in the form of 06 July 2018 Available Online: mortality and reduced productivity. Therefore, early disposal of wastes with a well- 10 August 2018 organized method is an important poultry waste management tool for raising healthy and profitable poultry farming activity Introduction properly manage the waste produced from it. It was stated that if waste must be transported Poultry is one of the fastest growing segments to a disposal site, it must be placed in sealed of the agricultural sector in India today. As containers to prevent spillage (Olexa and crop production alone may not solve the food Goldfarb, 2008). Globally, an excess of 90% difficulty of the fast growing population of poultry waste is spread on land close to the country. The poultry production has been the poultry farms (Moore et al., 1995). The appropriate answer for fulfillment of poultry industry produces large amounts of requirements of balanced diet. India is now the solid waste like bedding material, excreta, world's third largest egg producer, fourth feed, feathers, hatchery waste, mortality waste largest producer of chicken and fifth in poultry and waste water like faeces, urine, saw dust, meat production. In India Poultry meat, remnants of drugs pesticides, disinfection of contributes 47.05 percent of total Meat chicken houses and abattoirs. Poultry manure production. As poultry industry expanding its contains high phosphorus which has positive wings, it’s also increasing the challenges to effect on the growth and productivity of crops. 701
Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2018) 7(8): 701-712 It is also effective when combined with leaching and contamination of ground water mineral phosphorus fertilizer for farm use. which in turn effects sources of drinking water The poultry wastes also pose serious with subsequent impact on the health of environmental pollution problems through human beings particularly children. offensive odours and promotion of fly and rodent breeding (Adeoye et al., 1994). Soil amendment Therefore appropriate dispose/management of waste is required for minimizing the risk and Application of poultry manure improve water fetching the better vantage of poultry industry. holding capacity of soil and increase lateral There are different techniques of management water movement, therefore improving and disposal of poultry waste, to reutilize the irrigation potentiality and decreasing the nutritions and avoid the risk. In this review dryness of soils. It increases the number and different methods have included to emphasize diversity of soil microorganisms, particularly management and disposal of poultry waste. in sandy conditions. It is difficult to prescribe any uniform standard but care has to be taken Management of manure and Litter to spread poultry manure thinly on the soil instead of dumping in a heap. Since soil Roeper et al., (2005) stated that a major condition also varies widely it is difficult to problem coming along with the poultry prescribe any limit. It was evidenced that production is the manure that needs to be continuous application of composted and non- taken care of, avoidance of proper treatment composted poultry manures causes the can become risky for environment and improvement of physical properties of humans. Generally, manure refers to faeces degraded soil, and subsequently increased the and urine produced by animals; it contains maize grain yields more than the application organic matter and nutrients, which improve of poultry biochar and unamended manure its fertilizer value. Litter is a waste by-product (Are et al., 2018). of poultry industry, which consists of feces, bedding materials, wasted feed, and feathers As fertilizer (Chen Z et al., 2014). Dong and Tollner (2003) stated that poultry manure can cause The proper handling and management of environment related problems such as water, manure can augment or replace purchased air and land pollution. Ammonia, commercial fertilizers (Tao and Mancl, 2008). dimethylamine (DMA), trimethylamine Utilization of poultry waste as a source of (TMA) are the common odorous compounds manure for crop production has been the from poultry manure, (Nowak et al., 2017) favored system for recycling nutrients. The study of genotoxic and cytotoxic activity of approximated percentages of nutrient intake these compound in the model chicken cell line excreted by poultry are nitrogen (65.5%), (LMH), suggested that these compounds can potassium (83.5%) and phosphorus (68.5%), it induce cell death by necrosis and apoptosis. is beneficial increased crop production The risk of nutrients, organic material, and (Olumayowa and Abiodun, 2011). Other pathogens contaminating water bodies and elements such as calcium, magnesium, sulfur, public water supplies will greatly increase if boron, molybdenum, cobalt, copper, iron, manure is spread adjacent to streams, manganese and zinc which are deficient in waterways, and lakes (Coote and Zwerman, commercial fertilizer are also there in poultry 1975). High nitrogen content in the poultry manure in appreciable amounts. The manure is manure gives rise to the problem of nitrate stored in most of the farms before disposal, at 702
Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2018) 7(8): 701-712 least for a period of one month and this leads total ration (Muller, 1980). It was also noted to loss of nearly 40% N which reduces the that high copper level in poultry diet can cause value of the manure. In one study chicken toxicity in sheep. (Chaudhry et al., 1997) manure was added for sweet potato culture argued that the feeding poultry waste to and it was suggested that small-scale farmers livestock can cause health hazards like should avoid use of high levels of chicken pathogens and residues of pesticides. Also manure because higher levels of manure there may be problems associated with would increase vegetative growth at the nutrient loss mainly through volatilisation of expense of tuber formation (Magagula et al., ammonia (Caswell et al., 1975). It is 2010). suggested that ensiling poultry waste, i.e. slaughterhouse wastes with molasses and Livestock feeding lactobacilli improves NPN and reduces pathogens. Because material may be a Poultry litter has been used in diets for potential source of pathogenic bacteria (e.g. poultry, lambs, ewes, swine, lactating cows, Salmonella), moulds and yeasts (Alexander et wintering cattle and brood cows. Poultry al., 1968), feeding of poultry waste depends litter/manure is used as livestock feed in other on the type and standard of management of the countries also including Israel and some states birds. in the US (Smith and Wheeler, 1979). Drying of poultry manure is perhaps the oldest Drying of poultry manure procedure of processing waste for refeeding. It was stated that amino acid nitrogen of cage Drying in natural air conditions under sunlight layer waste ranges from 37 to 40% of total is one of the most economical and feasible nitrogen and that about 40 to 60% of total methods for tropical countries like India. nitrogen in poultry excreta is present in the Poultry waste has high water content, there is form of non-protein nitrogen (NPN) a need to develop a proper and inexpensive (Chaudhry et al., 1997). When it is given to processing technology to remove excessive ruminants as feed, uric acid which is the major moisture and destroy harmful pathogens from NPN source in poultry is degraded to the organic waste. Moreover, fresh poultry ammonia by rumen microbes. The maximum droppings have lower moisture content than inclusion rate of poultry waste in ruminant manure from other livestock, making sun feeds is 20% [National Research Council drying the most effective processing method. (NRC) (1984)]. Adding broiler litter into beef Dried poultry waste reportedly contains about cattle rations at a level of 20% or higher (as 30 per cent protein, of which about 60 per cent fed basis) can satisfy crude protein, calcium is from non-protein nitrogenous sources. and phosphorus requirement (Crickenberger Drying is affected by several factors which and Goode, 1996). The investigators reported alter its property (Ghaly and Alhattab et al., addition of poultry litter at a level of 30% into 2013) Thin layer (1-3 cm) drying of poultry corn silage has beneficiary effect. Dried manure is effective at temperatures within the poultry waste contains 28% protein and 30% range provided by solar heaters (40-60°C). ash and is also an excellent source of calcium, Greater nitrogen losses (44-55 %) is observed phosphorus, potassium, iron and zinc (NRC, at the deeper manure layer and higher 1984). It was studied that poultry waste fed at temperature which resulted in a reduction in levels above 35% usually covers almost the N:P:K from the initial value of 4.58:1.29:1 to total protein requirement of sheep, and final values in the range 2.07:1.30:1- contributes substantially to the energy of the 2.57:1.28:1. Drying is helpful in reducing the 703
Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2018) 7(8): 701-712 presence and offensiveness of odor by 65.3 and have a wide application in the field of and 69.3%, respectively, reduction in bacteria technical textiles (Chinta et al., 2013). Poultry (65.6-99.8%), yeast and mold (74.1-99.6%) feathers are also converted into biodegradable and E. coli (99.97 %). Dried poultry manure plastics by a process called polymerization. In has high nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium this process, feathers which contain keratin contents which are essential for plant growth. protein are pulverized into fine dust. Bioenergy production Management of poultry offal Poultry manure and litter is rich in organic Poultry offals are solid by-products, wastes of matter which can be transforming into poultry slaughterhouse or poultry processing bioenergy. Water flushing is one of the plant. It includes parts and/or whole poultry common processes for bioenergy production. carcass, undeveloped eggs, waste produced in In this technique, manure is digested broiler farming and slaughter house. Offal anaerobically that produces a gas mixture with consists of 5.3% of total Kjeldahl nitrogen, varying concentrations of combustible 32% proteins, 54% lipids and 0.6 to 0.9 % methane (FAO/CMS, 1996). Biogas is a methane production potential (Salminen and source of energy; it can be used as a fuel for Rintala, 2002). According to one study, engines, generation of electricity and other significantly (P90% protein and is rich in cystine, arginine and threonine as they are Poultry waste disposal methods hydrophobic amino acids, can resist from hydrothermal process that makes feather more The disposal of poultry carcasses is a serious digestible (Ekta and Rani, 2012). A slow trouble for poultry industry, as it has release nitrogen fertilizer has been developed environmental, biological, and financial from poultry feathers (Jong-Myung Choi and concern (Cai et al., 1994). The carcasses may Paul V. Nelson, 1996). It was reported that the not be disposed of by dumping on any public feather-lysate produced by Bacillus road or right-of-way left where they may be licheniformis PWD-1 has nutritional property consumed by animals (Olexa and Goldfarb, for feed similar to soybean protein. For 2008). Worldwide, there are several ways of minimizing environmental hazard new disposing of poultry waste including; burial, techniques are constructed for the production rendering, incineration, compositing, feed for of biodiesel from feather meal (Thyagarajan et livestock, fertilizer or source of energy. Each al., 2013). The nonwoven textile materials disposal option has advantages and prepared by chicken feathers are very versatile disadvantages. 704
Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2018) 7(8): 701-712 Poultry industry Soil amendment 705
Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2018) 7(8): 701-712 Burial Compositing 706
Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2018) 7(8): 701-712 Poultry waste disposal methods Serial no. Method Advantage Disadvantage 1. Burial  Predominant disposal  The poor site selection, such option for catastrophic mortality as sandy soils or areas with high events or infectious outbreaks water tables, may pose a threat to  Simplest and economical groundwater methods  Safe method 2. Burning  Easy and economic  Atmospheric pollution 3. Incineration  Most effective methods  The air emission, process for destroying potentially conditions, and the disposal of solid infectious agents and liquid residues need to be  Eliminating the threat of strictly controlled disease  It requires proper sources of  The residue is mostly fuel and supervision, otherwise harmless and does not attract smoke and odour can create rodents or insects nuisance complaints.  Expensive method 4. Compositing  Resultant products are  Loss of nutrients like much more environmentally nitrogen. acceptable than raw litter for  Land area required for the land application compositing  Economic method  Odour problems  Kill pathogens, control  Emission of greenhouse disease outbreaks. gases such as methane and nitrous  Reduces the risk of oxide nitrogen and phosphorus entering the water systems 5. Rendering  Rendering products can  Emission of gas and odour be used as feed, fertilizer leads environment concern  Fat product can be used for soaps, washing powders, cosmetics, fuel. Burial pits can be used if they are designed, constructed, maintained, and used in a manner Besides burning and rendering, the carcasses to prevent the spread of diseases. Burial is one of dead domestic animals may be disposed of of the simplest and most cost-effective by burial. According to (Malone, 2005), on- methods employed to deal with many types of farm burial has been the predominant disposal mass mortality losses. However, burial of option for many catastrophic mortality events dead birds in a pit can lead to ground water such as avian influenza outbreaks. It was contamination (Cai et al., 1994) and public suggested (Anon, 2005) that for mass disposal perception concerns if not properly managed. of animals (poultry, swine, and calves) burial Payne mentioned that when proper guidelines 707
Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2018) 7(8): 701-712 are followed, burial is a safe option but that from outbreaks of highly infectious diseases poor site selection, such as sandy soils or such as Newcastle disease and avian areas with high water tables, may pose a influenza. Anon (2005) argued that burning is threat to groundwater. Previous work (Payne) not a preferred method of disposal because of indicated that burial of mortality requires the the resulting air pollutants. Incomplete construction of a pit, which must be located at carcass combustion leads emission of Dioxins least 91.44 m away from any wells, waters of and furans, they are carcinogens and can the state, neighboring residences, public areas negatively affect human reproduction, or property lines. The bottom of the burial pit development and immune systems (Rier, must be at least 30.48 cm above any 2008). According to Anon (2005), mass floodplain level and at least 60.96 cm above cremation of mortality should be performed in the seasonal-high water table. On the other a flat area that is easily accessible to heavy hand, Anon (2005) indicated that mortality to vehicles for transporting the carcasses and be buried must be located more than 30.48 m away from public view. The site must be away from any existing or proposed wells, located away from buildings, public roads, water supply lines, or seasonable high water and overhead electric and telephone lines, table of any water source, and 4.57 m underground utility wires, and shallow horizontal away from the edge of any underground pipes or gas lines. embankment. Additionally, burial sites must not be in areas with gullies, ravines, dry Incineration streambeds, natural or man-made drainage ways or sinkholes. Payne stated that if there is Incineration is recognized as one of the bedrock in the area, the bottom of the pit must biologically safest methods of disposal, be at least 60.96 cm above the bedrock. In eliminating the threat of disease (Blake et al., addition, carcasses must be covered with a 2008). Incineration refers to process of minimum of 76.2 cm of top soil after thermal destruction, apparently among the placement in the pit. Anon (2005) stated that most effective methods for destroying mortality must be buried at least 0.91 m potentially infectious agents (Ritter and below ground level but no more than 2.44 m Chinside, 1995). The major concern during deep. Animals may be buried in mass burial incineration is, the air emission, process pits or in approved landfills. The soil for a conditions, and the disposal of solid and burial site must be of moderate or slow liquid residues need to be strictly controlled. permeability and must be at least one 30.48 The residue from properly incinerated cm above the seasonal high groundwater mortality is largely harmless and does not elevation. attract rodents or insects. Payne stated that incineration eliminates all pathogens but has Burning high operational costs and if not properly conducted it can contribute to air pollution This is one of the common methods of that decreases its usefulness for widespread disposing, especially among small-scale use as a mortality carcass disposal option. farmers. In this disposal method, mortalities Malone (2005) argued that the incineration are fully burned at relatively high process is slow, loading decomposed carcass temperatures using fuels such as wood, tyres poses a problem and it will require disposal of or diesel. However, this waste disposal 0.3 tonnes of ash per tonne of carcass. It method may lead to atmospheric pollution in requires proper sources of fuel and the event of catastrophic mortalities resulting supervision of the process, otherwise smoke 708
Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2018) 7(8): 701-712 and odour can create nuisance complaints. It the microorganisms that is lost through has been reported that incineration is aeration or surface cooling. In the opinion of expensive and can potentially pollute the air Turnell et al., (2007), the immobilisation of (Cai et al., 1994). Therefore, incineration not nitrogen and phosphorus during compositing much recommended for large-scale poultry reduces the risk of these nutrients entering the operations that produce large amounts of water systems. Furthermore, compositing mortalities but beneficial for poultry slaughter reduces the pathogenic organisms due to the facilities. high heat produced during the process of compositing. Das et al., (2002) reported that Compositing hatchery waste compositing reduces E. coli and salmonella by 99.9% and 100%, Composting is a natural, biological process by respectively. The disadvantages of which organic material is broken down and compositing are loss of some nutrients decomposed (Malone, 2004). This process is including nitrogen, the land area required for carried out by successive microbial the compositing and odour problems (Glatz et populations which function under increasing al., 2011). A potential problem with temperatures to break down organic materials compositing is the emission of greenhouse into carbon dioxide, water, minerals, and gases such as methane and nitrous oxide, stabilized organic matter (Evanylo et al., which are efficient in absorbing infra-red 2009). However, wastes having high moisture radiation resulting in global warming and acid with low fibre content need higher amounts of rain. Animal production contributes 7% of moisture-sorbing and structural support to greenhouse emissions worldwide through the compost well (Tritt and Schuchardt, 1992). It decomposition and degradation of manure is a biological process in which organic (Hao et al., 2004). wastes are converted into products which can be potentially used as soil conditioner and Rendering organic fertilizer (Brake, 1992). According to Malone (2005), microorganisms will rapidly Rendering is a process of application of heat compost carcasses in the presence of oxygen to remove fat from meat (Swan, 1992). It is (>5%), moisture (40-60%), and a proper much suited for high-risk material disposal. carbon to nitrogen ratio (20:1 to 35:1). This Rendering products can be used in animal process produces carbon dioxide, water feed, as fertiliser or further processed via vapour, heat and compost. It takes 2 to 6 anaerobic digestion or composting. Materials months for the animal to decompose (Anon, are exposed to 133°C temperature for a 2002). The benefits of compositing are minimum of 20 min at 3 bars or an alternative manifold. Compositing has the ability to heat treatment, to make it suitable for reduce poultry litter, dispose of carcasses, fertilizing and feeding purposes. Heat stabilise trace minerals and reduce odours treatment also increases the storage time of (Turnell et al., 2007; Bonhotal et al., 2008). It resultant products by removing moisture and can be done any time of the year and can be killing microorganisms (NABC, 2004 Carcass done with equipment available on farms; Disposal). Rendered feed product can be used hence it is economical (Bonhotal et al., 2008). for chemical industry or energy source in the The most efficient temperature range for form of fuel. Slaughterhouse by-products are composting is between 40 oC and 60 oC. preserved with formic acid as it has a good However, compost pile temperatures are source of proteins and vitamins and is used as dependent on the amount of heat produced by animal feed (Pulsa, 1996). The legislation, 709
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